Modern English Poetry

Introduction

The 20^th century was like no time period before it. Einstein, Darwin, Freud, and Marx were just some of the thinkers who profoundly changed the Western Culture. These changes took distinct shape in the literature of the 20^th century.

Modernism, a movement that was a radical break from 19th century Victorianism, led to post-modernism, which emphasized self-consciousness and pop art. While 20th-century literature is a diverse field covering a variety of genres, there are common characteristics that changed literature forever.

20th Century English Poetry Development

The 20th century English poetry emerged in the early years of the 20^th century through various schools, styles, and influences:

1st Phase

The first phase of the movement, the school of imagism, the style of French symbolist poetry influence of Dome and the dominance of war poetry, these were all different manifestations of modernism in English poetry (1909-16)A.D.

2nd Phase

During the flowering of Modernist poetry between 1917 and 1929, the 2^nd phase of the movement, all these initial manifestations of modernism combined to find a full nature expression in the poetry of T.S. Eliot, Edith Sitwell and later Yeats most notable of which is,Eliot’s The Waste Land, Sitwell’s Gold Coast Customs and Yeats’s Michael Robartes and the Dances

3rd Phase

The 3^rd and the final phase of Modernist is largely the decade of the 30s which is marked by the Marxed (Non-Marxist) poets such as Auden, Louis McNiece, C. Day-Lewis and Stephen Spender.

Characteristics

Diverse Variety of Themes

Poetry today can be written on almost any subject. The modern poets find inspirations from railway trains, tramcars, telephones and things of commonplace interest. Modern poets have not accepted the theory of great subjects for poetic composition.

The whole universe is the modern poet’s composition. He writes on themes of real-life e.g. The Songs Train by John Davidson, Goods Train of Night by Ashley, Machine Guns by Richard Aldington, Listeners by Walter

Realism

The poetry of the 20^th century is marked with a note of realism. Realism in modern poetry was the product of a reaction against the pseudo-romanticism of the last century over and above the influence of science.

The modern poet sees life and paints it as it is with all its wait and ugliness. He tears the veil which the romantics had hug between life and art. Robert Frost, Edmund Blunden, and Gibson are the poets of realism in modern poetry.

Love

Love forms the subject of many modern lyrics Robert Bridges has produced fine sonnets of love in The Growth of Love. E.g. I Will Not Let Thee Go. W.B. Yeats’ When You are Old etc.

Pessimism

There is a note of pessimism and disillusionment in modern poetry. The modern poet has realized the pettiness of human life and the tragedy and suffering of the poor have made him gloomy and sad.

Poetry as the expression of the feeling has become autumnal in tone T. Hardy, Huxley and T.S. Eliot are the poets of Pessimism and disillusionment in modern poetry.

Romantic Elements

In spite of the dominance of realism, in modern poetry, the spirit of romance continues to rule the minds of certain poets like Yeats, E. Thomas, Masefield etc. The works of these poets have the fact that the spirit of romance is as old as the life itself.

Walter De La Mare’s poetry is full of true romantic spirit bordering on supernaturalism. With him, the ghosts and fairies of the old world have come into their own in the 20^th century.

Nature

Nature attracts the modern poet no less than the poets of the earlier ages. But for the modern poet, nature is not a mystic. He does not find any spiritual meaning in nature. He feels jolly at the sight of nature’s loveliness.

He gives a clear picture of birds, clouds landscapes, sea and countryside in his poetry. Masefield, Robert Bridges, Edmund Blunden etc are the great poets of nature in modern poetry.

Humanitarian and Democratic Note

Modern Poetry is marked with a note of humanitarianism and democratic feeling. The modern poet, more than Wordsworth, is interested in the life of labourers, workers etc.

He sees, in the daily struggles of these people the same potentialities that the older poets found in those of high rank. Masefield, Gibson, Goldsworthy are mainly interested in the common man and his sufferings.

Religion and Mysticism

The modern age is the age of science, but even in this scientific age, we have poems written on the subject of religion and mysticism. W.B. Yeats, Francis Thompson, Robert Graves etc are the great poets who have kept alive the flame of religion and mysticism in their poetry.

Diction and Style

Modern poets have a preference for simple and direct expression. Modern poets have chosen to be free in the use of the meter. They have followed freedom from the trammels of verse. Verse rhythm is replaced by sense rhythm. There is free movement in 20th-century English poetry.

 

Formal features of poetry

1.  Open form
2.  Use of free verse
3.  Juxtaposition of ideas rather than consequential exposition
4.  Intertextuality
5. Use of allusions and multiple associations of words
6.  Borrowings from other cultures and languages
7.  Unconventional use of metaphor
8.  Importance given to sound to convey “the music of ideas”

 

Victorian Poetry

Introduction

Victorian poetry refers to the poems composed during the reign of Queen Victoria in English (1837-1901). This period was marked by tremendous cultural change.

There were a drastic change and development in the form of literature, art and music. Although Victorian Poetry was quite different from that of the preceding era, yet there were some similarities that existed between the two periods.

Characteristics

Realism

The Victorian Poetry was quite realistic in nature and quite less idealised as compared to the Romanic Poets who were idealists and believed in Art for art sake Nature, that was everything for the Romantics lost that idealised position in the Victorian era and became just a source of leisure and inspiration for the poets.

Focus on Masses

Romantic Poetry mainly focused on rural and rustic life. It is no way related to city life. On the other hand, Victorian poets used language as well as themes common to city life and thus wrote about the masses and for the masses.

Pessimism

As already discussed, Victorians were quite realistic and thus were more concerned about the reality rather than the ideal world. Due to the industrial revolution and advancement in science and technology, there was a drastic increase in the city population that gave rise to slums, poverty, unemployment, corruption diseases, deaths etc.

Thus, Victorian Poetry which focused on the pains and sufferings of commoners had a note of pessimism.

Science and Technology

The advancement in science and inventions was welcomed by the Victorian poets. It made them believe that a man can find all solutions to his problems and sufferings. They made their readers believe that they should use science for their betterment.

Questioning to God

It was an important feature of Victorian poetry. The development of empirical science, rationalism and radicalism led the people to give up religious thoughts and be more sceptic. Moreover, corruption in the Church, defining the morality of Priests, etc also led the people to question the religious institutions.

Sense of Responsibility

The Romantics believed in “return in nature”. A number of the Romantics did not like the city life and instead of giving voice to the victims of industrialisation, they left the city life. On the other hand, Victoria poets took the responsibility of social reform and gave voice to the commoners by living with them.

Morality

Though morality saw a steep decline in the Victorian Era, a number of poets tried to retain it by encouraging the people to be honest and noble.

Interest in Medieval Myths & Folklore

The Victoriansshowed great favour towards Medieval Literature. They loved mythical and chivalrous anecdotes of Medieval Knights, Courtly Love etc. This interest is on contrary to the of Romantics as the latter loved classical myths and legends.

Use of Sensory Devices & Imagery

The poets of the preceding era used imagery vividly. However, the Victorians also used sensory devices to describe the abstract scenes of chaos between Religion and Science.

Sentimentality

The Victorians wrote about artistic creations thus giving way to deeper imaginations.

Humour

A number of poets wrote humorous and whimsical verses. e.g. Bad Ballads.

Dramatic Monologue

A dramatic monologue is a long speech by a single person. It differs from soliquay which means the expression of ideas by a character in a play. On the other hand, dramatic monologue is a kind of lyric which was used and improved by Robert Browning.

Early Victorian Poets

The Early Victorian Poetry or the High School Poetry does not have the topic “The Love and Worship of Nature” as the Romantics had in their poetry. It is because the Romantics loved nature and it was shown through their poems adoring and blessing nature as if it were God. Early Victorian Poets are as follows:

• Robert Browning: He was the lover of music. He was the first to write Dramatic Monologue. He was an undying optimist. His important works are My Last Duchess, A Death to the Desert, Men and Women, The Last Ride Together etc.
• Lord Alfred Tennyson: Tennyson stood as the summit of poetry in England. For nearly half a century, he was not only a man and a poet but also the voice of people, expressing their doubt and faith, grief and triumph in his works. His important poems are The Princess, The May Queen, Crossing the Bar etc.
• Mathew Arnold: He was a poet as well as a critic. His important works are Rugby Chapel, Thyrsis, Scholar Gypsy, Dover Bitch, Soharab and Rustom, Shakespeare (A Sonnet) etc.
• Arthur Hugh Clough: He is famous for his poem The City of Dreadful Night.
• Edward Fitzgerald: He is mainly famous for his verse translation of Persian work Rubaiyat of Umar Khayyam. His pessimism was inherent in his acceptance of life’s purposelessness.

Later Victorian Poets

The Pre-Rephaelite was a movement. It began in 1848 A.D. by three painters including D.B. Rossetti. It aimed at a return to older principles in painting, but as Rossetti and other followers like William Morris and Swinburne were also gifted writers, they aimed to bring a change in a literary manner as well.

Female Poets

One of the important features of Victorian Period is the interest of female poets in Literature. Although there were few female poets before, yet males were the major composers of this genre. Important Victorian Poets include Elizabeth Browning (wife of Robert Browing), Christina Rossetti, and the Bronte sisters etc

 

 

 

Title: "My Heart Leaps Up"

Author: William Wordsworth

Publication Date: 1807

Genre: Poem

Section 01

Summary: "My Heart Leaps Up" is a short and lyrical poem by William Wordsworth. In this poem, the speaker expresses his deep connection to nature and his belief in the enduring significance of that connection. He begins by stating that his heart leaps with joy when he sees a rainbow in the sky. This simple and natural phenomenon fills him with happiness.

The speaker then reflects on the importance of this feeling and its impact on his life. He declares that he hopes to carry this joy with him throughout his life, from childhood to old age. He believes that if his heart ever loses the capacity to be moved by the sight of a rainbow, he would prefer to be dead.

The poem ends with the famous lines: "The Child is father of the Man," emphasizing that the experiences and emotions of childhood shape and influence our adult lives. The speaker sees his love for nature as a fundamental part of his identity and hopes to preserve it throughout his life.

Key Themes and Elements:

1. Connection to Nature: The central theme of the poem is the speaker's deep and abiding connection to nature. He finds profound joy and inspiration in the sight of a rainbow, a natural phenomenon, and believes that this connection is essential to his well-being.
2. The Continuity of Experience: The poem explores the idea that the emotions and experiences of childhood have a lasting impact on our adult selves. The phrase "The Child is father of the Man" suggests that our early experiences shape our character and beliefs.
3. Joy and Simplicity: "My Heart Leaps Up" celebrates the simple and pure joy that can be derived from nature. It reminds us of the beauty and wonder that can be found in the world around us.

Famous Lines:

• "My heart leaps up when I behold / A rainbow in the sky."
• "The Child is father of the Man."

Conclusion: "My Heart Leaps Up" by William Wordsworth is a brief yet profound reflection on the enduring connection between the human heart and the natural world. It highlights the importance of preserving the sense of wonder and joy that nature can inspire, from childhood through adulthood. The poem encourages us to embrace the beauty and simplicity of the natural world and to recognize its influence on our lives.

Section 02

A Critical Analysis of "My Heart Leaps Up"

 by William Wordsworth

Title: "My Heart Leaps Up"

Author: William Wordsworth

1. Nature's Influence:

• The poem emphasizes the profound impact of nature on the speaker's emotions and outlook on life. The sight of a rainbow in the sky fills his heart with joy, reflecting the idea that nature has the power to elicit deep and positive emotions.

2. Joy and Simplicity:

• Wordsworth celebrates the simplicity of joy derived from nature. The rainbow, a natural and uncomplicated phenomenon, becomes a source of pure happiness. This highlights Wordsworth's belief in the beauty of the ordinary and his Romantic reverence for nature's simplicity.

3. Continuity of Experience:

• The famous line, "The Child is father of the Man," underscores the idea that our childhood experiences shape our adult selves. The joy the speaker experiences as a child when seeing a rainbow remains a fundamental part of his identity throughout his life.

4. Life's Purpose:

• The poem subtly suggests that the purpose of life lies in preserving and cherishing the capacity for wonder and joy. The speaker expresses that if he ever loses his ability to be moved by the sight of a rainbow, life would lose its meaning.

5. Nature as a Spiritual Force:

• Wordsworth often viewed nature as a spiritual and transcendent force. In "My Heart Leaps Up," nature becomes a source of spiritual inspiration and a connection to a deeper, timeless realm.

6. Brief and Lyrical:

• The poem is short and lyrical, with a clear and straightforward structure. Wordsworth's use of concise language adds to the poem's impact, emphasizing the immediacy of the emotional response to nature.

Conclusion: "My Heart Leaps Up" by William Wordsworth is a lyrical exploration of the profound connection between human emotions and the natural world. The poem celebrates the simple joy that nature can bring and suggests that this joy is an essential and enduring aspect of human existence. It invites readers to reflect on the enduring influence of childhood experiences and the significance of preserving our capacity for wonder and happiness throughout life.

 

Title: "Ozymandias"

Author: Percy Bysshe Shelley

Publication Date: 1818

Genre: Sonnet

Section 01

Summary: "Ozymandias" is a sonnet that tells the story of a traveler who encounters a broken statue in the desert. The statue is a colossal representation of a once-great ruler named Ozymandias (believed to be a reference to the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II). The inscription on the pedestal boasts of Ozymandias's power and accomplishments. However, the statue now lies in ruins, and the surrounding area is desolate.

Key Themes and Elements:

1. The Transience of Power: The central theme of the poem is the fleeting nature of human power and the inevitable decline of empires. The fallen statue and the inscription, "Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!" serve as a stark reminder that even the mightiest rulers and civilizations will eventually crumble and be forgotten.
2. Nature's Dominance: The poem highlights the contrast between the works of humans and the enduring power of nature. The "vast and trunkless legs of stone" and the "shattered visage" of the statue emphasize how nature, represented by the "boundless and bare" desert, has outlasted human achievements.
3. Irony: The poem employs dramatic irony, as the inscription's message boasts of Ozymandias's greatness, while the broken and ruined statue contradicts this claim. This irony underscores the poem's theme of the impermanence of human achievements.
4. Artistic Expression: "Ozymandias" also reflects on the role of art and artistic expression. The sculptor's skill and craftsmanship endure even as the ruler's statue crumbles, emphasizing the lasting impact of creative works.

Famous Lines:

• "Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!"
• "Nothing beside remains. Round the decay / Of that colossal Wreck, boundless and bare / The lone and level sands stretch far away."

Conclusion: "Ozymandias" is a powerful and concise exploration of the transitory nature of human power and ambition. Shelley's use of vivid imagery and irony creates a thought-provoking meditation on the impermanence of empires and the enduring force of nature. The poem serves as a reminder that even the most imposing legacies will eventually fade into obscurity, and the natural world will continue to prevail.

Section 02

A Critical Analysis of "Ozymandias" 

by Percy Bysshe Shelley

Title: "Ozymandias"

Author: Percy Bysshe Shelley

1. Imagery and Visual Impact:

• Shelley employs vivid and evocative imagery to paint a clear picture of the scene. The colossal, broken statue in the desert, the "vast and trunkless legs of stone," and the "shattered visage" of Ozymandias create a striking visual image.
• The description of the "lone and level sands" stretching "far away" evokes a sense of vastness and desolation.

2. Irony:

• The poem is characterized by dramatic irony, where the reader knows something that the speaker and the traveler in the poem do not. The inscription on the pedestal, "Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!" is ironic because it boasts of Ozymandias's greatness, while the ruins surrounding it tell a different story.
• This irony underscores the theme of the impermanence of human achievements and power.

3. Themes:

• Transience of Power: The central theme of the poem is the fleeting nature of human power and glory. The broken statue, once a symbol of Ozymandias's might, is now a testament to the ephemeral nature of human accomplishments.
• Nature's Dominance: The poem contrasts human achievements with the enduring power of nature. The "lone and level sands" represent the timeless and relentless force of the natural world.

4. Symbolism:

• The statue of Ozymandias serves as a symbol of human ambition and hubris. It was created to immortalize the ruler's greatness, but it has crumbled into ruins.
• The desert symbolizes the indifferent and unyielding force of nature, which outlasts all human endeavors.

5. Artistic Expression:

• The poem also touches upon the idea of artistic expression and creativity. While Ozymandias's empire has fallen, the sculptor's skill and artistry are still evident in the ruins. This highlights the lasting impact of artistic works.

6. Message:

• "Ozymandias" delivers a timeless message about the impermanence of power and the inevitability of decline. It warns against arrogance and the belief in the eternal nature of human achievements.
• It encourages humility and an appreciation for the enduring power of nature.

Conclusion: "Ozymandias" by Percy Bysshe Shelley is a thought-provoking and visually striking poem that explores themes of transience, the power of nature, and the ironic contrast between human ambition and reality. Through its imagery and irony, the poem leaves a lasting impression and serves as a poignant meditation on the rise and fall of empires.

 

 

"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner"

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Title: "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner"

Author: Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Publication Date: 1798

Genre: Narrative Poem

Section 1

Summary: "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is a haunting and mystical narrative poem that tells the story of an old mariner who stops a young wedding guest to share a harrowing tale of his experiences at sea. The poem unfolds as the mariner recounts his journey on a ship, where he and his crewmates encounter a ghostly ship crewed by skeletal figures and guided by a ghostly woman, Life-in-Death.

Key Themes and Elements:

1. Nature's Power: The poem vividly portrays the raw and formidable power of nature. The mariner and his crewmates face severe storms, becalming, and supernatural occurrences, all of which symbolize the unpredictability and force of nature.
2. Guilt and Redemption: The mariner commits a grave sin when he kills an albatross, a symbol of good luck. His act brings a curse upon the ship, leading to the deaths of his crewmates. The poem explores themes of guilt, remorse, and the journey to redemption as the mariner seeks to atone for his actions.
3. Isolation and Loneliness: The mariner's punishment is not only physical but also psychological. He is left alone to suffer and carry the weight of his guilt. The poem delves into the themes of isolation and loneliness as the mariner is forced to confront his actions.
4. Spiritual and Supernatural Elements: "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" includes supernatural elements, such as the ghostly ship and the figure of Death. It also has spiritual undertones, exploring the idea of a higher power and the mariner's connection to the spiritual world.
5. Water Imagery: Water is a recurring motif in the poem. It represents both life and death, as well as the fluidity of existence. The sea is both a source of sustenance and a relentless force of destruction.
6. Redemption through Appreciation of Nature: The mariner's redemption begins when he experiences a profound connection with nature, particularly with the water snakes in the sea. His newfound appreciation for the natural world leads to his spiritual awakening and eventual release from his curse.

Famous Lines:

• "Water, water, every where, / Nor any drop to drink."
• "He prayeth best, who loveth best / All things both great and small."

 

Section 02 

        A Critical Analysis of "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner"

Introduction: "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is a renowned narrative poem written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1798. It tells the tale of an old mariner who recounts his harrowing journey at sea to a young wedding guest. The poem explores themes of guilt, redemption, nature, and the supernatural.

1. Supernatural Elements: One of the distinctive features of the poem is its infusion of supernatural elements. The ghostly ship crewed by skeletal figures and the haunting presence of Life-in-Death add an eerie and mysterious atmosphere to the narrative. These supernatural elements underscore the idea that the mariner's actions have consequences beyond the natural world.

2. Nature's Power: Coleridge vividly portrays the awe-inspiring and terrifying power of nature. The mariner and his crewmates face life-threatening storms, a becalming, and scorching heat. These natural forces symbolize the unpredictability and uncontrollable aspects of the natural world. Nature is both beautiful and destructive in the poem.

3. Guilt and Atonement: The central moral theme of the poem revolves around guilt and the need for atonement. The mariner's thoughtless act of killing an albatross brings a curse upon the ship, resulting in the deaths of his fellow sailors. His profound guilt and remorse drive him on a spiritual journey of redemption. His penance involves telling his story to others, which serves as a warning against thoughtless actions.

4. Isolation and Loneliness: The mariner's punishment goes beyond physical suffering; he experiences profound loneliness and isolation. He is left alone on the ship, surrounded by the lifeless bodies of his crewmates. This isolation serves as a form of psychological punishment, highlighting the spiritual consequences of his actions.

5. Redemption Through Nature: One of the poem's key messages is that redemption can be found through a deep connection with the natural world. The mariner's turning point comes when he blesses the water snakes, creatures that he had previously despised. This act of kindness and appreciation for nature leads to his spiritual awakening and eventual release from the curse. It underscores the idea that nature has a healing and redemptive power.

6. Moral Lessons: "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is often seen as a cautionary tale about the consequences of thoughtless actions and the importance of environmental stewardship. The mariner's story serves as a moral lesson for the young wedding guest and, by extension, for readers.

Conclusion: Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is a profound and captivating narrative poem that delves into themes of guilt, redemption, nature's power, and the supernatural. Its rich symbolism, vivid descriptions, and moral depth continue to resonate with readers, making it a timeless classic in English literature that continues to captivate readers with its haunting beauty and moral depth.

   Romantic Poetry 

  (1798  to 1837 )

Introduction to Romantic Poetry:

• Romantic poetry is a literary movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
• It was a reaction against the rationalism and formality of the Enlightenment period.
• Romantic poets emphasized emotions, nature, and individualism.

Key Characteristics of Romantic Poetry:

1. Emphasis on Emotion:
• Romantic poets believed that emotions and feelings were essential for poetic expression.
• They explored deep and intense emotions such as love, passion, and awe.
2. Love for Nature:
• Nature was a central theme in Romantic poetry.
• Poets celebrated the beauty and power of nature and often used it as a metaphor for human emotions.
3. Individualism:
• Romantic poets celebrated the individual and the uniqueness of personal experience.
• They often wrote about their own emotions and perspectives.
4. Imagination:
• The Romantics valued the power of imagination and believed it could reveal deeper truths.
• They often used vivid and imaginative language in their poetry.
5. Spirit of Rebellion:
• Many Romantic poets were rebels who questioned societal norms and values.
• They often championed the cause of the common people and criticized authority.

Prominent Romantic Poets:

1. William Wordsworth (1770-1850):
• Known for his poems celebrating the beauty of nature and the ordinary.
• Famous works include "Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey."
2. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834):
• Co-author of "Lyrical Ballads" with Wordsworth.
• Known for his supernatural and dreamlike poems, including "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner."
3. John Keats (1795-1821):
• Known for his sensual and aesthetic poetry.
• Famous works include "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode to a Grecian Urn."
4. Lord Byron (1788-1824):
• Famous for his rebellious and adventurous spirit.
• Known for works like "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" and "Don Juan."
5. Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822):
• Known for his radical and visionary poetry.
• Famous works include "Ozymandias" and "To a Skylark."

Themes in Romantic Poetry:

1. Nature and Beauty: Celebration of the natural world and its beauty.
2. Love and Passion: Exploration of intense emotions, love, and desire.
3. Individualism: Emphasis on personal experiences and perspectives.
4. Imagination: Use of vivid and imaginative language.
5. Rebellion: Critique of societal norms and authority.

Conclusion:

• Romantic poetry is a literary movement that prioritizes emotions, nature, and individualism.
• It gave rise to some of the most celebrated poets in the English language.
• Romantic themes continue to influence literature and art to this day.